Knowledge Management in Malaysia

intimacy prudence in MalaysiaCHAPTER devilLITERATURE REVIEW2.1 OVERVIEWIt is so difficult and though for the viers of the organizations to pay friendship c erstrn in their de breakments, beca enjoyment this major(ip) is still new in so legion(predicate) aspects such as business environs and organizational subtlety or appearance and it has a long way to be completed. It is hard for the managers to believe that, it has so many wellbeings if they use fellowship steering tools in their organizations.Managers should jut in their mind that association counseling is non an automatic practice, it moldiness be initiated by people and put up the stand of the whole organization. Something desire these myths need to be eliminated and the direct meaning of friendship trouble must be earnably mum by managers and the rest of the organizations. This supply up help the managers to abundantly getting help from fellowship charge and apply it in the organizations (Soba hle 2005).The study on Ameri toilet Productivity and Quality Centers transnational Bench-marking shows that, about 11 organizations be working on the cognition heed atomic number 18a which ar Arthur Andersen Chevron Corporation Dow Chemical ships company Hughes Space Communications Kaiser Permanente determine Waterhouse Sequent Computer Systems Skandia AFS Texas Instruments USAA and National Security Agency, the following was recognized (Ishak, 2002) make do the instinct those techniques which croupe be utilize.Apply the techniques to new directions.Further more, the other issues which nookie assure the advantage of acquaintance instruction possibilitys atomic number 18 both(prenominal)thing same(p), emphasizes on the issues such as employees issues, top forethought leadership and commitment, organizational culture and scientific infra mental synthesis.This chapter forward motiones the literary works round off on noesis counselling. In this chapter the t ry is make to get finished some of the just about of import key factors of association prudence and analyze their respective literature. The attempt is made to show the contrasting aspects of experience counselling. It has a brief introduction on acquaintance focal point which is used by Malayan organizations past it volition be excuse about the fellowship forethought spew works and computer architectures. In this chapter the most two important factors in intimacy heed which, technological woo and human approach, be considered. This chapter will finish by the friendship tapersing concern, issues and at last reason about the benefit of noesis centering will be considered.2.2 KNOWLEDGE circumspection IN MALAYSIA on the whole over past two decades Malaysia has been transitioning from relying on a production found- economy to a companionship-based economy (Chang, 2005). The plan of association precaution in Malaysia was innate(p) with the establishmen t of the Mul sentencedia Super Corridor (MSC) in 1990s to accelerate this concept in Malaysia. bearually, thither argon so many Malayan companies which they are working on do itledge precaution and they realize and visit the enormousness of it in the professional life. In January 15, 2002, one of the prestigious magazines in Malaysia, Computerworld Malaysia organized the experience wariness Roundtable A Vital Strategy or Expensive Toy. The participants from motley sectors in Malaysia shared their channelise of ideas and approaches carry throughed and exchanged ideas in practicing noesis management (Chang, 2005).As an practice session for the practical aspect, there are a deed of organizations in Malaysia which are triumphful in familiarity management endeavors, such as Malaysian Institute of Microelectronic Systems (MIMOS), MAMPU, Bank Negara Malaysia, Siemens, Nokia Malaysia and Telekom Malaysia, Tenaga Nasional Berhad and Pet shareum Nasional Berhad (Petronas) ar e examples of organizations in Malaysia that have embarked on KM initiatives.There are so many studies on intimacy management in Malaysia, and the structure of Malaysia paper in Malaysia seems to be incomprehensive, there are a few number of out standing articles to mention, which shows in table 2.1. board 2.1 association Management Malaysian StudiesTitle fountain/ Date/ ledger spirit of WorkIntellectual capital and business writ of execution in Malaysian industriesBontis, Chua Richardson (2000) journal of Intellectual detonator search orbit ( admited among Malaysian firms)cognition management in health care towards association-driven conclusion- mount servicesAbidi, (2001) International daybook of Medical InformaticsCase think (Universiti Sains Malaysia Hospital turn up in Kota Baharu, Malaysia)Managing human resources toward achieving companionship managementYahya Goh, (2002) Journal of intimacy ManagementResearch hit the books (Conducted among Malaysian firms)Kno wledge management in a public organization a study on the relationship among organizational elements and the performance of experience transfer.Syed Ikhsan Rowland, (2004) Journal of Knowledge ManagementCase Study (Ministry of entrepreneur ripening of Malaysia)Benchmarking fellowship management in a public organization in MalaysiaSyed Ikhsan Rowland, (2004) Benchmarking An International JournalCase Study (Ministry of entrepreneur development of Malaysia)An empiric study of perceived importance and actual slaying of cognition management exercise in the Malaysian telecom industryChong Yeow, (2005) Proceedings of ICTMResearch Study (Study among Malaysian telecommunication exertionKM overcritical success factors A comparison of perceived importance versus carrying out in Malaysian ICT companies.Chong, (2006) The Learning OrganizationResearch Study (194 Malaysian ICT companies)KM execution of instrument in Malaysian telecommunication industry an empirical analysis.Wei, Choy Yeow, (2006) Industrial Management Data SystemsResearch Study (289 employees working in telecommunication organizations in Malaysia)KM implementation and its influence on performance an empirical evidence from Malaysian multimedia body crack corridor companiesChong, (2006) Journal of development and Knowledge ManagementResearch Study (Study among Malaysian multimedia super corridor companies)Exploring KM issues and KM performance outcomes empirical evidence from Malaysian multimedia super corridor companiesChong Lin (2006) International Journal of Technology ManagementResearch Study (Study among Malaysian multimedia super corridor companies)An exploratory study on knowledge management adoption in the Malaysian Industry.Wong, (2008) International Journal of Business education SystemsResearch Study (exploratory KM survey conducted in the Malaysian industry)2.3 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IMPLEMENTATION FRAMEWORKSAccording to Von Krogh (1998), which he takes a business perspective s tating that KMS help increase competitiveness, the purpose of implementing KMS in organizations are unlike. KMS leads to grater innovation and responsiveness, Hackbarth (1998). Davenport and Prusak (1998) go away three reasons why KMS are implemented in organizations which are as follows To leaven visibility of knowledge in organizations through the use of symbolises, hyper school texts, yellow pages, directories etc. To build a knowledge overlap culture i.e. farm avenues for employees to share knowledge. To develop a knowledge infrastructure, not contain to utilise science solely, rather stool an environment that grants collaborative work.These three things which were proposed by Davenport and Prusak (1998) imply that KMS nates brook an organization in preparation for and relations with emergencies.Many organizations are still wrestling with their knowledge management and failing to realize its luxuriant effectiveness. This is due to their lack of the support of str ong suppositional foundation to assume them in its implementation (Wong Aspinwall, 2004). Unfortunately, many organizations do not have a clear knowledge management implementation plan in mind (Liebowitz, 1999). Therefore, in order for an organization to be victorious in its effort to manage knowledge, a guiding simulation is essential. This is why in this part a re fool of diverse knowledge management implementation manikins and models is presented. The framework consents to researchers as well as practitioners to measure the underway responsibility of knowledge management effectively and carcassatically. Thus, the knowledge management framework should furnish not exactly a unified view of knowledge management phenomena but likewise help investigators study the line of products of knowledge management in an organized way. There have been few efforts to develop a framework of knowledge management. However, none of the frameworks gage provide a complete and generalized f rame for knowledge management by defining rudimentary attributes of knowledge management and their interrelationships because knowledge management give the sack be viewed antitheticly on ones background and interests (Chong, 2005).To know the exact value of knowledge management, an architecture of it, would provide the necessary understanding of distinct components like, knowledge management activities, knowledge management resources, knowledge management influences (Holsapple Joshi, 1997). The improvement of a framework is to follow and track the approach and maturity of knowledge management of an enterprise, so, it would serve to support the industry-wide improvement of knowledge management programs. Further more, it would provide an acceptable frame of reference for the estimate of the adequacies of an organization by government, commercialized customers and prime contractors (Chong, 2005).The knowledge management frameworks can be classified under four categories ( defe r 2.2)Which are namely, knowledge founding framework, knowledge musical rhythm butt againstes of knowledge management, exercises on knowledge management initiatives in industry and upper- take aim knowledge management frameworks. circuit card 2.2 KM Frameworks and their examples in the literatureKnowledge Management FrameworksExamplesKnowledge knowledgeableness FrameworkNonaka(1991, 1994), Nonaka Takeuchi (1995)Knowledge round Processes of KMBose Sugumaran (2003)Cases on KM Initiatives in IndustryApostolou Mentzas (1998), Lai chu (2002)High-Level KM FrameworksHolsapple Joshi (2002), Jarrar (2002), Wiig (1997)Nonaka and Takeuchi are tried to rationalize the progress and adaption between tacit and explicit knowledge. In fact, knowledge foot framework is not a knowledge management framework, the reason is, and it only deals with the institution of knowledge which is only a share of what constitutes knowledge management. Also, the knowledge cycle processes of knowledge m anagement frameworks are providing a discipline of activities where the prominence is on the knowledge cycle processes or activities. They principal(prenominal)ly address the phases of knowledge flow (from creation to application) in an organization without providing counselor-at-law on how to implement knowledge management. The framework on knowledge management initiatives in industry provide a reference to facilitate the structuring, analysis and evaluation of the knowledge management initiatives undertaken in variant case companies. Lastly, High-Level knowledge management frameworks are the ones providing more detail directions on the implementation of knowledge management. This reference of framework seems to address not only the question of what is but also how to because it prescribes and stir ways for organizations to steep in knowledge management activities (Wong Aspinwall, 2004).In their review of literature, Wong and Aspinwall, try to have an organized review of t he confused available frameworks for knowledge management implementation. The acceptable thing for the review was to distinguish the knowledge management implementation frameworks, find out the short comings of all(prenominal) and finally suggesting a through lead line for exploitation knowledge management implementation frameworks. They have classified the high level knowledge management frameworks as frameworks such as 1) System approach, 2) Step approach, 3) hybrid approach.(Table 2.3, 2.4, 2.5 shows the comparisons between frameworks under each approach).Table 2.3 Comparisons of agreement approach frameworks first Wong Aspinwall (2004)Holsapple Joshi (2002)Jarrar (2002)Gore Gore (1999)Wiig et al. (1997) mean- fare strategical priority Define and understand knowledgeFormulate visionConceptualize ReflectExecute---ActEvaluate---ReviewKnowledge Types / resourcesKnowledge embedded in participants, culture, infrastructure, artifacts, purpose and strategy-Tacit KnowledgeExpli cit knowledge-KM processes / activitiesAcquire, select, internalize and use knowledgeCollect, present, turn over and measure knowledge generally focuses on knowledge creation and remoteizationDevelop, distribute, combine and consolidate knowledgeKM influences / factorsResource influences, managerial influences, environmental influencesKnowledge environment-External and internal developments-, not indicated or not clearly indicatedTable 2.4 Comparisons of step approach frameworks root Wong Aspinwall (2004)McCampbell et al. (1999)Wiig (1999)PlanForm powerful coalitionCommunicate vision of KMEstablish teams for needs assessmentAnalyze the needs of KMObtain management buy-inSurvey and map the knowledge landscapePlan the knowledge strategyCreate and define knowledge- link upalternatives andpotential initiativesPortray benefit expectations forknowledge managementinitiativesSet knowledge management prioritiesDetermine key knowledge requirementsExecute target and collect knowledge object ive a technological structureTest the technologybrinytenance of the technologyRetest the technologyTraining of knowledge workersRoll out the use of KM practicesMake systems go break downAcquire key knowledgeCreate integrated knowledge transferprogramsTransform, distribute and applyknowledge assetsEstablish and update a KM infrastructureManage knowledge assetsConstruct incentive programs adjust KM activities and functionsenterprise-wideFacilitate knowledge-focusedmanagementEvaluateTrack usage cadency quality and productivityMeasure the performance of KMpracticesConduct a need assessment reviewMonitor knowledge managementKnowledge type / resources national knowledgeExternal knowledge foot be inferred from the step manage knowledge assets KM processes / activities key out and collect knowledgeAcquire, transform, distribute and apply knowledgeKM influences / factors-Can be inferred from the steps make believeincentive programs and facilitateknowledge-focused management-, not indicat ed or not clearly indicatedTable 2.5 Comparisons of hybrid approach frameworks informant Wong Aspinwall (2004)Rubenstein Montano et al. (2001)Mentzas (2001)PlanStrategize, ModelAwareness planExecuteAct, careenDevelop, operateEvaluate fiatMeasurementKnowledge types / resourcesTacit knowledge, Explicit knowledgeKnowledge assetsKM processes / activitiesKM tasksProcessKM influences / factorsCulture, Strategy, learningStrategy, Structure, SystemBy study on these knowledge frameworks designer an absolute knowledge management implementation framework may implicate the possible admittancees on success of knowledge management. Further more, the obstacles and developers should bear in their mind that if they want to analyze managers in regard with, which elements are likely to disrupt the knowledge management implementation success and which elements may enable their effort towards knowledge management achievements. Finally, a knowledge management implementation frame work should make a understanding view among social and technological approach to knowledge management. Consideration of the authors demonstrate that most of the time this correspondence is disturb in favor of one approach while the other approach is all totally neglected or received incomplete anxiety (Wong Aspinwall, 2004).Different types of knowledge resources are identified. The activities and processes which can help to manage them should be mentioned in the knowledge management implementation framework. As an example, there is some of knowledge management processes such as acquiring, capturing, creating, organizing, storing, accessing, transferring, communion, applying, distributing and using knowledge. The suggested clues by Wong and Aspinwall for developing a knowledge management implementation framework admit five factors, which are as follows(1) Incorporate a clear structure to organize the tasks.(2) Address the dissimilar knowledge resources or types.(3) Include the knowledge managem ent processes or activities that master the knowledge.(4) Point out the influences that can affect the performance of knowledge management.(5) Provide a balanced view between a technological and a social perspective.2.4 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS CATEGORIZATION2.4.1 Knowledge Management System DefinitionKnowledge management system (KMS), are mostly IT based systems for managing knowledge in organizations and are used for supporting, creating, capturing and disseminating of communicateation. The main concept of knowledge management system (KMS) is to make a quickness for employees to have an access to the organizations development, sources, memorial base facts and their solutions.As a matter of fact a knowledge management system (KMS) could be any of the following things Social computing tools which can help to create a knowledge management system (KMS). Knowledge management system (KMS), embolden in creating mesh topology maps in organizations which is used in communication among individuals and entities. Document based, any formatted that permits, control, manage. Use Artificial Intelligence (AI), for customized delegation schema to demonstrate the line of work domain.Further more, the benefits of using knowledge management in organization can be categorized as1. Valuable organizational entropy and breeding sacramental manduction.2. Reduce redundant work.3. lower time for new incomers like new employees.4. Retention of mental property. brutald on this definition Gupta and Sharma (2004) fork knowledge management system into seven major categories, which are as follows (tables 2.6)Table 2.6 Example of KMS commencement Gupta and Sharma (2004)KMS TechnologyDescription bright Systems, artificial intelligence and knowledge based management system (KBMS)Main purpose of these systems is to capture knowledge and perform analysis on alive knowledge base to assist in decision making. a good deal associated to rule based and pattern recognition systems .Computer Supported cooperative Work ( stemware)Systems that permit sharing and collaborative work. Often described synonymously to Lotus Notes. However, one could suggest that asynchronous (e-mail, wikis e-log) and synchronous systems (videoconference, chat) are newer applications that can fall into this category (Bates and Poole, 2003). Groupware can also include Group Support Systems (GSS) that is intended to support groups make decision (Mandviwalla, 1994).Document Management SystemsSystems that support the need for managing text and images to make instruction more than more accessible. Similar to the idea of office management systems i.e. use of various word documentation and spreadsheet software. finis support systems (DSS)Business applications that usually contain summaries of large amounts of info, filtered and synthesized particularly to support strategic decision-making. View records related to this term5.The focus of DSS is on analysis of quantitative cultivation an d presentation tools for managers.semantic NetworksThe focus is on systems that explain not just relationships between entities but the meaning based on how the entities are structured. Can be used to represent domain knowledge explicitly and shared (Gupta and Sharma, 2004). relative and Object oriented databasesSystems that permit management of both structured (relational) and much more complex data sets (OODBMS)Simulation toolsSystems that run computing machine based simulations for a variety of purposes.2.4.2 Knowledge Management ArchitectureBase on Gupta and Sharma (2004) findings, they suggest architecture for knowledge management which has seven levels and it is shown in table 2.7.Table 2.7 Overview of Knowledge Management ArchitectureSource Form Gupta, Sharma Hsu (2004)LevelKey ActivitiesCustomer KnowledgeDetailed, knowledge sharing relationships. Understanding the requirements of customers. Identifying new opportunities.Stakeholder Relationships fit a better knowledge flow s among suppliers, shareholders, employees, community, etc. Use this knowledge to inform key points strategies.Business surround InsightsSystematic environmental scanning including political, economic, technology, social and environmental trends. Competitor analysis. trade intelligence systems.Organizational retentivityKnowledge sharing. Best practice databases. Directories of expertise. Online documents, procedures and discussion forums. Intranets.Knowledge in ProcessesEmbedding knowledge into business processes and management. Decision-making.Knowledge in Products and ServicesKnowledge embedded in products. Surround products with knowledge, e.g., in exploiter guides, and enhanced knowledge intensive services.Knowledge in PeopleKnowledge-sharing fairs. Innovation workshops. Expert and learning networks. Communities of knowledge practice.As it shows above there is a seven mould for knowledge management architecture and each level related to a particular aspect of knowledge manag ement. So, in this regard there is a summarization for this table which restate the important part of this socio-economic classs and compact it injust three works, it is summarized in table 2.8 as followsTable 2.8 Knowledge Management ArchitectureSource Gupta, Sharma Hsu (2004) mold Level apprize ExplanationData Sources layerAccording to different data sources which are accessible within organizations, this layer has both internal and external data sources. As an example, data repository, email repository, databases.Knowledge Management LayerThe processes of knowledge management layer include acquisition, refinement, storage, recuperation, distribution and presentation of required knowledge. An example would be a knowledgebase which assists decision making processes during an emergency situation.Knowledge Presentation LayerThis layer represents the port that forms the basis of interaction between users and the system. This can be called a knowledge portal that can guide decisio n making in dealing with an emergency situation. The knowledge portal can be knowing to support communication, collaboration and discipline sharing requirement.There is two more explanation in detailed view for knowledge management architecture and knowledge management process model. The most important part in knowledge management architecture and knowledge management process are capturing knowledge, create a new knowledge, share it and distribute it as it is shown in 2.1 and 2.2.2.4.3 Performance of learning Technology (IT) in Knowledge Management System (KMS)Information Technology (IT), plays an important role in acquire, store, disseminate and manage knowledge than ever before. Alavi and Leidner (2001), proposed an admired framework, which can be used to analyze and test the role of Information technology (IT) in design and fulfilment of any Knowledge Management System (KMS). The table (2.9) which is adapted from Alavi and Leidner (2001), shows the different perspectives of kn owledge management initiatives and knowledge management system (KMS), design particularly.Table 2.9 Knowledge Perspective and cushion on KM and KMSSource Alavi and Leidner (2001, p.11)PerspectiveMeaningImplication for KMImpact on KMS reference in ITKnowledge vis--vis data and teachingData is consider as a fact, raw numbers, reading is processed/ contextual data/ interpreted data knowledge is personalized instruction e.g this would entail once experience and exposure.KM initiative should expose employees to relevant information and facilitate assimilation of information.KMS may not necessarily be different from an existing information system. The differences are that any KMS should help employees assimilate the information. subprogram of IT is to ensure KMS design permits information assimilation.Knowledge as a state of the mindKnowledge is ones state of knowing and understanding.KM initiative should provide an information base that enables individuals to recognize the existen ce of knowledge. This can enhance individual learning and understanding.availableness to where knowledge resides rather than to knowledge itself- i.e. provide a means to an end. This would include web and wireless access to knowledge base.Knowledge as an objectKnowledge that is stored and subject to manipulation.KM initiative should permit development and management of knowledge base.IT can support KMS to gather, store, and disseminate knowledge.This would include the use collaborative tools e.g. wikis.Knowledge as a processKnowledge visualized as a process of applying expertise.KM initiative should focus on effective flow of knowledge within the realms of knowledge creation, sharing and dissemination.by providing links to various knowledge sources which includes internal and external sources. This would include use of web based systems, hyperlinks, markup languages and access to databases. The idea is to offer a wider breadth and depth of knowledge flowsKnowledge and accessibility to informationKnowledge is a checker of access to information.KM initiative should provide ease of access to and retrieval of content in a stipulation system.IT can be used to enhance indexing, query and billet relevant information.Knowledge as a capabilityAs a capability knowledge has the potential to influence action.KM initiative should focus on developing core competencies and understanding the strategic role of the initiative.It can increase the intellectual capital through development of individual and organizational competencies.Table 2.9 proposed that Information technology plays an important role in knowledge management initiatives in organizations. Alavi and Leidner (2001) defined a knowledge management system (KMS) as IT- based system develop to support and enhance the organizational processes of knowledge creation. They observe that not all knowledge management initiatives will implement an IT solution, but they support IT as an enabler of knowledge management (Raman , M. Muthaiyah, S.). In addition, knowledge management system (KMS) can assist organizations in dealing with dynamic and complex situations such as emergencies (Gupta Sharma, 2004).2.4.4 Appropriate Theories to Knowledge Management Systems (KMS)This part consists of two theories which can help to design and implement decisions of any knowledge management systems (KMS) to support knowledge management in organizations. Those mentioned theories are, Information Processing supposition (IPT), and, casualty Theory.2.4.4.1 Information Processing Theory (IPT)George A. miller (1956), has afforded two theoretical ideas which are the basic concepts of the information bear on framework and cognitive psychology. The first approach is chunking and the subject of short term fund. He insists that short term memory can get just 5-9 chunks of information (seven plus or deduction two). A chunk could refer to digits, words, peoples faces or any other meaningful units. The second idea which Mi ller was mentioned is people process information akin to a computerized system. They take gossip into the memory like the computer, because the human minds take the information, analyze it, store the content and locate it in the best situation of memory and then retrieve as and when needed based on the given situation.In this context, Burnell (2004), state thatAs diversity of resources, processes or outputs increase inter process coordination requirements and system complexity increase. As uncertainty increases, information processing requirements increases become of managements inability to predict every situation. Information processing theory is widely applied in the study of human learning and cognitive styles (Miller, 1960). As a matter of fact Information Processing Theory (IPT) has some principles which are often applied by instructors for the following reasons Gain the students attention Point out important and critical chunks of information, separating them from trivial ones. Provide opportunities for students in linking new to existing information. Presenting information in clear manner. Emphasize on meaning of information i.e. not memorizing them.Actually, those mentioned principles for information processing theory can be applied to design of knowledge management system (KMS) to support emergency cookery as well (Kostman, 2004). Particularly, in approaching emergency situations, knowledge management system can be elaborated to enable decision makers to Retrieve information that is critical, quickly. Focus on the situation without being impairment amidst voluminous information. Create and share a knowledge base by linking past experience to existing information base. Structure emergency related information clearly. Understand different meaning and interpretation of critical terminology used in dealing with an emergency.2.4.4.2 Contingency TheoryContingency theory was founded by Lawrence and Lorsch (1967), in the study of ten firms in plastic, f ood, containers, which are three different iKnowledge Management in MalaysiaKnowledge Management in MalaysiaCHAPTER TWOLITERATURE REVIEW2.1 OVERVIEWIt is so difficult and though for the managers of the organizations to apply knowledge management in their departments, because this major is still new in so many aspects such as business environment and organizational culture or behavior and it has a long way to be completed. It is hard for the managers to believe that, it has so many benefits if they use knowledge management tools in their organizations.Managers should bear in their mind that knowledge management is not an automatic practice, it must be initiated by people and have the support of the whole organization. Something like these myths need to be eliminated and the exact meaning of knowledge management must be clearly understood by managers and the rest of the organizations. This will help the managers to abundantly getting help from knowledge management and apply it in the organizations (Sobahle 2005).The study on American Productivity and Quality Centers International Bench-marking shows that, about 11 organizations are working on the knowledge management area which are Arthur Andersen Chevron Corporation Dow Chemical Company Hughes Space Communications Kaiser Permanente Price Waterhouse Sequent Computer Systems Skandia AFS Texas Instruments USAA and National Security Agency, the following was recognized (Ishak, 2002)Share the understanding those techniques which can be used.Apply the techniques to new directions.Further more, the other issues which can assure the success of knowledge management initiatives are something like, emphasizes on the issues such as employees issues, top management leadership and commitment, organizational culture and technological infrastructure.This chapter approaches the literature review on knowledge management. In this chapter the try is made to clarify some of the most important key factors of knowledge management an d analyze their respective literature. The attempt is made to show the different aspects of knowledge management. It has a brief introduction on knowledge management which is used by Malaysian organizations then it will be explain about the knowledge management frame works and architectures. In this chapter the most two important factors in knowledge management which, technological approach and human approach, are considered. This chapter will finish by the knowledge management concern, issues and at last discuss about the benefit of knowledge management will be considered.2.2 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN MALAYSIAOver past two decades Malaysia has been transitioning from relying on a production based- economy to a knowledge-based economy (Chang, 2005). The concept of knowledge management in Malaysia was born with the establishment of the Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC) in 1990s to accelerate this concept in Malaysia.Actually, there are so many Malaysian companies which they are working o n knowledge management and they realize and understand the importance of it in the professional life. In January 15, 2002, one of the prestigious magazines in Malaysia, Computerworld Malaysia organized the Knowledge Management Roundtable A Vital Strategy or Expensive Toy. The participants from various sectors in Malaysia shared their point of views and approaches implemented and exchanged ideas in practicing knowledge management (Chang, 2005).As an example for the practical aspect, there are a number of organizations in Malaysia which are successful in knowledge management initiatives, such as Malaysian Institute of Microelectronic Systems (MIMOS), MAMPU, Bank Negara Malaysia, Siemens, Nokia Malaysia and Telekom Malaysia, Tenaga Nasional Berhad and Petroleum Nasional Berhad (Petronas) are examples of organizations in Malaysia that have embarked on KM initiatives.There are so many studies on knowledge management in Malaysia, and the structure of Malaysia papers in Malaysia seems to b e incomprehensive, there are a few number of out standing articles to mention, which shows in table 2.1.Table 2.1 Knowledge Management Malaysian StudiesTitleAuthor/ Date/JournalNature of WorkIntellectual capital and business performance in Malaysian industriesBontis, Chua Richardson (2000) Journal of Intellectual CapitalResearch Study (Conducted among Malaysian firms)Knowledge management in healthcare towards knowledge-driven decision- support servicesAbidi, (2001) International Journal of Medical InformaticsCase Study (Universiti Sains Malaysia Hospital located in Kota Baharu, Malaysia)Managing human resources toward achieving knowledge managementYahya Goh, (2002) Journal of Knowledge ManagementResearch Study (Conducted among Malaysian firms)Knowledge management in a public organization a study on the relationship between organizational elements and the performance of knowledge transfer.Syed Ikhsan Rowland, (2004) Journal of Knowledge ManagementCase Study (Ministry of Entreprene ur development of Malaysia)Benchmarking knowledge management in a public organization in MalaysiaSyed Ikhsan Rowland, (2004) Benchmarking An International JournalCase Study (Ministry of Entrepreneur development of Malaysia)An empirical study of perceived importance and actual implementation of knowledge management process in the Malaysian telecommunication industryChong Yeow, (2005) Proceedings of ICTMResearch Study (Study among Malaysian telecommunication IndustryKM critical success factors A comparison of perceived importance versus implementation in Malaysian ICT companies.Chong, (2006) The Learning OrganizationResearch Study (194 Malaysian ICT companies)KM implementation in Malaysian telecommunication industry an empirical analysis.Wei, Choy Yeow, (2006) Industrial Management Data SystemsResearch Study (289 employees working in Telecommunication organizations in Malaysia)KM implementation and its influence on performance an empirical evidence from Malaysian multimedia super corridor companiesChong, (2006) Journal of Information and Knowledge ManagementResearch Study (Study among Malaysian multimedia super corridor companies)Exploring KM issues and KM performance outcomes empirical evidence from Malaysian multimedia super corridor companiesChong Lin (2006) International Journal of Technology ManagementResearch Study (Study among Malaysian multimedia super corridor companies)An exploratory study on knowledge management adoption in the Malaysian Industry.Wong, (2008) International Journal of Business Information SystemsResearch Study (exploratory KM survey conducted in the Malaysian industry)2.3 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IMPLEMENTATION FRAMEWORKSAccording to Von Krogh (1998), which he takes a business perspective stating that KMS help increase competitiveness, the purpose of implementing KMS in organizations are various. KMS leads to grater innovation and responsiveness, Hackbarth (1998). Davenport and Prusak (1998) provide three reasons why KMS are implement ed in organizations which are as follows To enhance visibility of knowledge in organizations through the use of maps, hypertexts, yellow pages, directories etc. To build a knowledge sharing culture i.e. create avenues for employees to share knowledge. To develop a knowledge infrastructure, not confined to technology solely, rather create an environment that permits collaborative work.These three things which were proposed by Davenport and Prusak (1998) imply that KMS can support an organization in planning for and dealing with emergencies.Many organizations are still wrestling with their knowledge management and failing to realize its full potential. This is due to their lack of the support of strong theoretical foundation to guide them in its implementation (Wong Aspinwall, 2004). Unfortunately, many organizations do not have a clear knowledge management implementation plan in mind (Liebowitz, 1999). Therefore, in order for an organization to be victorious in its effort to manage knowledge, a guiding framework is essential. This is why in this part a review of diverse knowledge management implementation frameworks and models is presented. The framework consents to researchers as well as practitioners to measure the current state of knowledge management effectively and systematically. Thus, the knowledge management framework should provide not only a unified view of knowledge management phenomena but also help investigators study the field of knowledge management in an organized way. There have been few efforts to develop a framework of knowledge management. However, none of the frameworks can provide a complete and generalized frame for knowledge management by defining fundamental attributes of knowledge management and their interrelationships because knowledge management can be viewed differently on ones background and interests (Chong, 2005).To know the exact value of knowledge management, an architecture of it, would provide the necessary understanding of different components like, knowledge management activities, knowledge management resources, knowledge management influences (Holsapple Joshi, 1997). The improvement of a framework is to follow and track the progress and maturity of knowledge management of an enterprise, so, it would serve to support the industry-wide improvement of knowledge management programs. Further more, it would provide an acceptable frame of reference for the assessment of the adequacies of an organization by government, commercial customers and prime contractors (Chong, 2005).The knowledge management frameworks can be classified under four categories (Table 2.2)Which are namely, knowledge creation framework, knowledge cycle processes of knowledge management, cases on knowledge management initiatives in industry and high-level knowledge management frameworks.Table 2.2 KM Frameworks and their examples in the literatureKnowledge Management FrameworksExamplesKnowledge Creation FrameworkNonaka(1991, 1994), Nona ka Takeuchi (1995)Knowledge Cycle Processes of KMBose Sugumaran (2003)Cases on KM Initiatives in IndustryApostolou Mentzas (1998), Lai chu (2002)High-Level KM FrameworksHolsapple Joshi (2002), Jarrar (2002), Wiig (1997)Nonaka and Takeuchi are tried to explain the progress and adaption between tacit and explicit knowledge. In fact, knowledge creation framework is not a knowledge management framework, the reason is, and it only deals with the creation of knowledge which is only a share of what constitutes knowledge management. Also, the knowledge cycle processes of knowledge management frameworks are providing a set of activities where the prominence is on the knowledge cycle processes or activities. They mainly address the phases of knowledge flow (from creation to application) in an organization without providing guidance on how to implement knowledge management. The framework on knowledge management initiatives in industry provide a reference to facilitate the structuring, ana lysis and evaluation of the knowledge management initiatives undertaken in various case companies. Lastly, High-Level knowledge management frameworks are the ones providing more detailed directions on the implementation of knowledge management. This type of framework seems to address not only the question of what is but also how to because it prescribes and suggest ways for organizations to engage in knowledge management activities (Wong Aspinwall, 2004).In their review of literature, Wong and Aspinwall, try to have an organized review of the various available frameworks for knowledge management implementation. The acceptable thing for the review was to classify the knowledge management implementation frameworks, find out the short comings of each and finally suggesting a through guide line for developing knowledge management implementation frameworks. They have classified the high level knowledge management frameworks as frameworks such as 1) System approach, 2) Step approach, 3) hybrid approach.(Table 2.3, 2.4, 2.5 shows the comparisons between frameworks under each approach).Table 2.3 Comparisons of system approach frameworksSource Wong Aspinwall (2004)Holsapple Joshi (2002)Jarrar (2002)Gore Gore (1999)Wiig et al. (1997)Plan-Set strategic priority Define and understand knowledgeFormulate visionConceptualize ReflectExecute---ActEvaluate---ReviewKnowledge Types / resourcesKnowledge embedded in participants, culture, infrastructure, artifacts, purpose and strategy-Tacit KnowledgeExplicit knowledge-KM processes / activitiesAcquire, select, internalize and use knowledgeCollect, present, distribute and measure knowledgeMainly focuses on knowledge creation and externalizationDevelop, distribute, combine and consolidate knowledgeKM influences / factorsResource influences, managerial influences, environmental influencesKnowledge environment-External and internal developments-, not indicated or not clearly indicatedTable 2.4 Comparisons of step approach framework sSource Wong Aspinwall (2004)McCampbell et al. (1999)Wiig (1999)PlanForm powerful coalitionCommunicate vision of KMEstablish teams for needs assessmentAnalyze the needs of KMObtain management buy-inSurvey and map the knowledge landscapePlan the knowledge strategyCreate and define knowledge-relatedalternatives andpotential initiativesPortray benefit expectations forknowledge managementinitiativesSet knowledge management prioritiesDetermine key knowledge requirementsExecuteIdentify and collect knowledgeDesign a technological structureTest the technologyMaintenance of the technologyRetest the technologyTraining of knowledge workersRoll out the use of KM practicesMake systems go liveAcquire key knowledgeCreate integrated knowledge transferprogramsTransform, distribute and applyknowledge assetsEstablish and update a KM infrastructureManage knowledge assetsConstruct incentive programsCoordinate KM activities and functionsenterprise-wideFacilitate knowledge-focusedmanagementEvaluateTrack usageMeasure quality and productivityMeasure the performance of KMpracticesConduct a need assessment reviewMonitor knowledge managementKnowledge type / resourcesInternal knowledgeExternal knowledgeCan be inferred from the step manage knowledge assets KM processes / activitiesIdentify and collect knowledgeAcquire, transform, distribute and apply knowledgeKM influences / factors-Can be inferred from the steps constructincentive programs and facilitateknowledge-focused management-, not indicated or not clearly indicatedTable 2.5 Comparisons of hybrid approach frameworksSource Wong Aspinwall (2004)Rubenstein Montano et al. (2001)Mentzas (2001)PlanStrategize, ModelAwareness planExecuteAct, TransferDevelop, operateEvaluateReviseMeasurementKnowledge types / resourcesTacit knowledge, Explicit knowledgeKnowledge assetsKM processes / activitiesKM tasksProcessKM influences / factorsCulture, Strategy, learningStrategy, Structure, SystemBy study on these knowledge frameworks creator an absolu te knowledge management implementation framework may include the possible accesses on success of knowledge management. Further more, the obstacles and developers should bear in their mind that if they want to analyze managers in regard with, which elements are likely to disrupt the knowledge management implementation success and which elements may enable their effort towards knowledge management achievements. Finally, a knowledge management implementation frame work should make a correspondence view among social and technological approach to knowledge management. Consideration of the authors demonstrate that most of the time this correspondence is disturb in favor of one approach while the other approach is either totally neglected or received incomplete attention (Wong Aspinwall, 2004).Different types of knowledge resources are identified. The activities and processes which can help to manage them should be mentioned in the knowledge management implementation framework. As an exam ple, there is some of knowledge management processes such as acquiring, capturing, creating, organizing, storing, accessing, transferring, sharing, applying, distributing and using knowledge. The suggested clues by Wong and Aspinwall for developing a knowledge management implementation framework include five factors, which are as follows(1) Incorporate a clear structure to organize the tasks.(2) Address the different knowledge resources or types.(3) Include the knowledge management processes or activities that manipulate the knowledge.(4) Point out the influences that can affect the performance of knowledge management.(5) Provide a balanced view between a technological and a social perspective.2.4 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS CATEGORIZATION2.4.1 Knowledge Management System DefinitionKnowledge management system (KMS), are mostly IT based systems for managing knowledge in organizations and are used for supporting, creating, capturing and disseminating of information. The main concept of knowledge management system (KMS) is to make a facility for employees to have an access to the organizations information, sources, document base facts and their solutions.As a matter of fact a knowledge management system (KMS) could be any of the following things Social computing tools which can help to create a knowledge management system (KMS). Knowledge management system (KMS), assist in creating network maps in organizations which is used in communication among individuals and entities. Document based, any formatted that permits, control, manage. Use Artificial Intelligence (AI), for customized representation schema to demonstrate the problem domain.Further more, the benefits of using knowledge management in organization can be categorized as1. Valuable organizational data and information sharing.2. Reduce redundant work.3. Decrease time for new incomers like new employees.4. Retention of intellectual property.Based on this definition Gupta and Sharma (2004) divide knowledge management system into seven major categories, which are as follows (tables 2.6)Table 2.6 Example of KMSSource Gupta and Sharma (2004)KMS TechnologyDescriptionExpert Systems, artificial intelligence and knowledge based management system (KBMS)Main purpose of these systems is to capture knowledge and perform analysis on existing knowledge base to assist in decision making. Often associated to rule based and pattern recognition systems.Computer Supported Collaborative Work (Groupware)Systems that permit sharing and collaborative work. Often described synonymously to Lotus Notes. However, one could suggest that asynchronous (e-mail, wikis e-log) and synchronous systems (videoconference, chat) are newer applications that can fall into this category (Bates and Poole, 2003). Groupware can also include Group Support Systems (GSS) that is intended to support groups make decision (Mandviwalla, 1994).Document Management SystemsSystems that support the need for managing text and images to make information much more accessible. Similar to the idea of office management systems i.e. use of various word documentation and spreadsheet software.Decision support systems (DSS)Business applications that usually contain summaries of large amounts of data, filtered and synthesized particularly to support strategic decision-making. View records related to this term5.The focus of DSS is on analysis of quantitative data and presentation tools for managers.Semantic NetworksThe focus is on systems that explain not just relationships between entities but the meaning based on how the entities are structured. Can be used to represent domain knowledge explicitly and shared (Gupta and Sharma, 2004).Relational and Object oriented databasesSystems that permit management of both structured (relational) and much more complex data sets (OODBMS)Simulation toolsSystems that run computer based simulations for a variety of purposes.2.4.2 Knowledge Management ArchitectureBase on Gupta and Sharma (2004) findings, they suggest architecture for knowledge management which has seven levels and it is shown in table 2.7.Table 2.7 Overview of Knowledge Management ArchitectureSource Form Gupta, Sharma Hsu (2004)LevelKey ActivitiesCustomer KnowledgeDetailed, knowledge sharing relationships. Understanding the requirements of customers. Identifying new opportunities.Stakeholder RelationshipsBecoming a better knowledge flows among suppliers, shareholders, employees, community, etc. Use this knowledge to inform key points strategies.Business Environment InsightsSystematic environmental scanning including political, economic, technology, social and environmental trends. Competitor analysis. Market intelligence systems.Organizational MemoryKnowledge sharing. Best practice databases. Directories of expertise. Online documents, procedures and discussion forums. Intranets.Knowledge in ProcessesEmbedding knowledge into business processes and management. Decision-making.Knowledge in Products and Ser vicesKnowledge embedded in products. Surround products with knowledge, e.g., in user guides, and enhanced knowledge intensive services.Knowledge in PeopleKnowledge-sharing fairs. Innovation workshops. Expert and learning networks. Communities of knowledge practice.As it shows above there is a seven layer for knowledge management architecture and each level related to a particular aspect of knowledge management. So, in this regard there is a summarization for this table which summarize the important part of this layers and compact it injust three layers, it is summarized in table 2.8 as followsTable 2.8 Knowledge Management ArchitectureSource Gupta, Sharma Hsu (2004)Layer LevelBrief ExplanationData Sources layerAccording to different data sources which are accessible within organizations, this layer has both internal and external data sources. As an example, data repository, email repository, databases.Knowledge Management LayerThe processes of knowledge management layer include acq uisition, refinement, storage, retrieval, distribution and presentation of required knowledge. An example would be a knowledgebase which assists decision making processes during an emergency situation.Knowledge Presentation LayerThis layer represents the interface that forms the basis of interaction between users and the system. This can be called a knowledge portal that can guide decision making in dealing with an emergency situation. The knowledge portal can be designed to support communication, collaboration and information sharing requirement.There is two more explanation in detailed view for knowledge management architecture and knowledge management process model. The most important part in knowledge management architecture and knowledge management process are capturing knowledge, create a new knowledge, share it and distribute it as it is shown in 2.1 and 2.2.2.4.3 Performance of Information Technology (IT) in Knowledge Management System (KMS)Information Technology (IT), plays an important role in acquire, store, disseminate and manage knowledge than ever before. Alavi and Leidner (2001), proposed an admired framework, which can be used to analyze and test the role of Information technology (IT) in design and fulfillment of any Knowledge Management System (KMS). The table (2.9) which is adapted from Alavi and Leidner (2001), shows the different perspectives of knowledge management initiatives and knowledge management system (KMS), design particularly.Table 2.9 Knowledge Perspective and impact on KM and KMSSource Alavi and Leidner (2001, p.11)PerspectiveMeaningImplication for KMImpact on KMS Role in ITKnowledge vis--vis data and informationData is consider as a fact, raw numbers, information is processed/ contextual data/ interpreted data knowledge is personalized information e.g this would entail once experience and exposure.KM initiative should expose employees to relevant information and facilitate assimilation of information.KMS may not necessarily b e different from an existing information system. The differences are that any KMS should help employees assimilate the information. Role of IT is to ensure KMS design permits information assimilation.Knowledge as a state of the mindKnowledge is ones state of knowing and understanding.KM initiative should provide an information base that enables individuals to recognize the existence of knowledge. This can enhance individual learning and understanding.Accessibility to where knowledge resides rather than to knowledge itself- i.e. provide a means to an end. This would include web and wireless access to knowledge base.Knowledge as an objectKnowledge that is stored and subject to manipulation.KM initiative should permit development and management of knowledge base.IT can support KMS to gather, store, and disseminate knowledge.This would include the use collaborative tools e.g. wikis.Knowledge as a processKnowledge visualized as a process of applying expertise.KM initiative should focus o n effective flow of knowledge within the realms of knowledge creation, sharing and dissemination.by providing links to various knowledge sources which includes internal and external sources. This would include use of web based systems, hyperlinks, markup languages and access to databases. The idea is to offer a wider breadth and depth of knowledge flowsKnowledge and accessibility to informationKnowledge is a condition of access to information.KM initiative should provide ease of access to and retrieval of content in a given system.IT can be used to enhance indexing, query and locating relevant information.Knowledge as a capabilityAs a capability knowledge has the potential to influence action.KM initiative should focus on developing core competencies and understanding the strategic intent of the initiative.It can increase the intellectual capital through development of individual and organizational competencies.Table 2.9 proposed that Information technology plays an important role i n knowledge management initiatives in organizations. Alavi and Leidner (2001) defined a knowledge management system (KMS) as IT- based system develop to support and enhance the organizational processes of knowledge creation. They observe that not all knowledge management initiatives will implement an IT solution, but they support IT as an enabler of knowledge management (Raman, M. Muthaiyah, S.). In addition, knowledge management system (KMS) can assist organizations in dealing with dynamic and complex situations such as emergencies (Gupta Sharma, 2004).2.4.4 Appropriate Theories to Knowledge Management Systems (KMS)This part consists of two theories which can help to design and implement decisions of any knowledge management systems (KMS) to support knowledge management in organizations. Those mentioned theories are, Information Processing Theory (IPT), and, Contingency Theory.2.4.4.1 Information Processing Theory (IPT)George A. Miller (1956), has afforded two theoretical ideas w hich are the basic concepts of the information processing framework and cognitive psychology. The first approach is chunking and the capacity of short term memory. He insists that short term memory can get just 5-9 chunks of information (seven plus or minus two). A chunk could refer to digits, words, peoples faces or any other meaningful units. The second idea which Miller was mentioned is people process information akin to a computerized system. They take input into the memory like the computer, then the human minds take the information, analyze it, store the content and locate it in the best situation of memory and then retrieve as and when needed based on the given situation.In this context, Burnell (2004), state thatAs diversity of resources, processes or outputs increase inter process coordination requirements and system complexity increase. As uncertainty increases, information processing requirements increases become of managements inability to predict every situation. Inform ation processing theory is widely applied in the study of human learning and cognitive styles (Miller, 1960). As a matter of fact Information Processing Theory (IPT) has some principles which are often applied by instructors for the following reasons Gain the students attention Point out important and critical chunks of information, separating them from trivial ones. Provide opportunities for students in linking new to existing information. Presenting information in clear manner. Emphasize on meaning of information i.e. not memorizing them.Actually, those mentioned principles for information processing theory can be applied to design of knowledge management system (KMS) to support emergency preparedness as well (Kostman, 2004). Particularly, in approaching emergency situations, knowledge management system can be elaborated to enable decision makers to Retrieve information that is critical, quickly. Focus on the situation without being loss amidst voluminous information. Create and s hare a knowledge base by linking past experience to existing information base. Structure emergency related information clearly. Understand different meaning and interpretation of critical terminology used in dealing with an emergency.2.4.4.2 Contingency TheoryContingency theory was founded by Lawrence and Lorsch (1967), in the study of ten firms in plastic, food, containers, which are three different i